Hi all,
Proposal link: https://github.com/DougGregor/swift-evolution/blob/nserror-bridging/proposals/0000-nserror-bridging.md
Here is a detailed proposal draft for bridging NSError to ErrorProtocol. Getting this right is surprisingly involved, so the detailed design on this proposal is fairly large. Comments welcome!
- Doug
NSError Bridging
Proposal: SE-NNNN <https://github.com/DougGregor/swift-evolution/blob/nserror-bridging/proposals/NNNN-nserror-bridging.md>
Author: Doug Gregor <https://github.com/DougGregor>, Charles Srstka <https://github.com/CharlesJS>
Status: Awaiting review
Review manager: TBD
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub
Swift's error handling model interoperates directly with Cocoa's NSError conventions. For example, an Objective-C method with an NSError** parameter, e.g.,
- (nullable NSURL *)replaceItemAtURL:(NSURL *)url options:(NSFileVersionReplacingOptions)options error:(NSError **)error;
will be imported as a throwing method:
func replaceItem(at url: URL, options: ReplacingOptions = ) throws -> URL
Swift bridges between ErrorProtocol-conforming types and NSError so, for example, a Swift enum that conforms toErrorProtocol can be thrown and will be reflected as an NSError with a suitable domain and code. Moreover, an NSErrorproduced with that domain and code can be caught as the Swift enum type, providing round-tripping so that Swift can deal in ErrorProtocol values while Objective-C deals in NSError objects.
However, the interoperability is incomplete in a number of ways, which results in Swift programs having to walk a careful line between the ErrorProtocol-based Swift way and the NSError-based way. This proposal attempts to bridge those gaps.
Swift-evolution thread: Charles Srstka's pitch for Consistent bridging for NSErrors at the language boundary <https://lists.swift.org/pipermail/swift-evolution/Week-of-Mon-20160502/016618.html>, which discussed Charles' original proposal <https://github.com/apple/swift-evolution/pull/331> that addressed these issues by providing NSError to ErrorProtocol bridging and exposing the domain, code, and user-info dictionary for all errors. This proposal expands upon that work, but without directly exposing the domain, code, and user-info.
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub
There are a number of weaknesses in Swift's interoperability with Cocoa's error model, including:
There is no good way to provide important error information when throwing an error from Swift. For example, let's consider a simple application-defined error in Swift:
enum HomeworkError : Int, ErrorProtocol {
case forgotten
case lost
case dogAteIt
}
One can throw HomeworkError.dogAteIt and it can be interpreted as an NSError by Objective-C with an appropriate error domain (effectively, the mangled name of the HomeworkError type) and code (effectively, the case discriminator). However, one cannot provide a localized description, help anchor, recovery attempter, or any other information commonly placed into the userInfo dictionary of an NSError. To provide these values, one must specifically construct an NSError in Swift, e.g.,
throw NSError(code: HomeworkError.dogAteIt.rawValue,
domain: HomeworkError._domain,
userInfo: [ NSLocalizedDescriptionKey : "the dog ate it" ])
There is no good way to get information typically associated with NSError's userInfo in Swift. For example, the Swift-natural way to catch a specific error in the AVError error domain doesn't give one access to the userInfo dictionary, e.g.,:
catch let error as AVError where error == .diskFull {
// AVError is an enum, so one only gets the equivalent of the code.
// There is no way to access the localized description (for example) or
// any other information typically stored in the ``userInfo`` dictionary.
}
The workaround is to catch as an NSError, which is quite a bit more ugly:
catch let error as NSError where error._domain == AVFoundationErrorDomain && error._code == AVFoundationErrorDomain.diskFull.rawValue {
// okay: userInfo is finally accessible, but still weakly typed
}
This makes it extremely hard to access common information, such as the localized description. Moreover, the userInfo dictionary is effectively untyped so, for example, one has to know a priori that the value associated with the known AVErrorDeviceKey will be typed as CMTime:
catch let error as NSError where error._domain = AVFoundationErrorDomain {
if let time = error.userInfo[AVErrorDeviceKey] as? CMTime {
// ...
}
}
It would be far better if one could catch an AVError directly and query the time in a type-safe manner:
catch let error as AVError {
if let time = error.time {
// ...
}
}
NSError is inconsistently bridged with ErrorProtocol. Swift interoperates by translating between NSError and ErrorProtocol when mapping between a throwing Swift method/initializer and an Objective-C method with an NSError** parameter. However, an Objective-C method that takes an NSError* parameter (e.g., to render it) does not bridge to ErrorProtocol, meaning that NSError is part of the API in Swift in some places (but not others). For example, NSError leaks through when the following UIDocument API in Objective-C:
- (void)handleError:(NSError *)error userInteractionPermitted:(BOOL)userInteractionPermitted;
is imported into Swift as follows:
func handleError(_ error: NSError, userInteractionPermitted: Bool)
One would expect the first parameter to be imported as ErrorProtocol.
This proposal involves directly addressing (1)-(3) with new protocols and a different way of bridging Objective-C error code types into Swift, along with some conveniences for working with Cocoa errors:
Introduce three new protocols for describing more information about errors: LocalizedError, RecoverableError, andCustomNSError. For example, an error type can provide a localized description by conforming to LocalizedError:
extension HomeworkError : LocalizedError {
var errorDescription: String? {
switch self {
case .forgotten: return NSLocalizedString("I forgot it")
case .lost: return NSLocalizedString("I lost it")
case .dogAteIt: return NSLocalizedString("The dog ate it")
}
}
}
Imported Objective-C error types should be mapped to struct types that store an NSError so that no information is lost when bridging from an NSError to the Swift error types. We propose to introduce a new macro, NS_ERROR_ENUM, that one can use to both declare an enumeration type used to describe the error codes as well as tying that type to a specific domain constant, e.g.,
typedef NS_ERROR_ENUM(NSInteger, AVError, AVFoundationErrorDomain) {
AVErrorUnknown = -11800,
AVErrorOutOfMemory = -11801,
AVErrorSessionNotRunning = -11803,
AVErrorDeviceAlreadyUsedByAnotherSession = -11804,
// ...
}
The imported AVError will have a struct that allows one to access the userInfo dictionary directly. This retains the ability to catch via a specific code, e.g.,
catch AVError.outOfMemory {
// ...
}
However, catching a specific error as a value doesn't lose information:
catch let error as AVError where error.code == .sessionNotRunning {
// able to access userInfo here!
}
This also gives the ability for one to add typed accessors for known keys within the userInfo dictionary:
extension AVError {
var time: CMTime? {
get {
return userInfo[AVErrorTimeKey] as? CMTime?
}
set {
userInfo[AVErrorTimeKey] = newValue.map { $0 as CMTime }
}
}
}
Bridge NSError to ErrorProtocol, so that all NSError uses are bridged consistently. For example, this means that the Objective-C API:
- (void)handleError:(NSError *)error userInteractionPermitted:(BOOL)userInteractionPermitted;
is imported into Swift as:
func handleError(_ error: ErrorProtocol, userInteractionPermitted: Bool)
This will use the same bridging logic in the Clang importer that we use for other value types (Array, String, URL, etc.), but with the runtime translation we've already been doing for catching/throwing errors.
When we introduce this bridging, we will need to remove NSError's conformance to ErrorProtocol to avoid creating cyclic implicit conversions. However, we still need an easy way to create an ErrorProtocol instance from an arbitrary NSError, e.g.,
extension NSError {
var asError: ErrorProtocol { ... }
}
In Foundation, add an extension to ErrorProtocol that provides typed access to the common user-info keys. Note that we focus only on those user-info keys that are read by user code (vs. only accessed by frameworks):
extension ErrorProtocol {
// Note: for exposition only. Not actual API.
private var userInfo: [NSObject : AnyObject] {
return (self as! NSError).userInfo
}
var localizedDescription: String {
return (self as! NSError).localizedDescription
}
var filePath: String? {
return userInfo[NSFilePathErrorKey] as? String
}
var stringEncoding: String.Encoding? {
return (userInfo[NSStringEncodingErrorKey] as? NSNumber)
.map { String.Encoding(rawValue: $0.uintValue) }
}
var underlying: ErrorProtocol? {
return (userInfo[NSUnderlyingErrorKey] as? NSError)?.asError
}
var url: URL? {
return userInfo[NSURLErrorKey] as? URL
}
}
Rename ErrorProtocol to Error: once we've completed the bridging story, Error becomes the primary way to work with error types in Swift, and the value type to which NSError is bridged:
func handleError(_ error: Error, userInteractionPermitted: Bool)
<https://github.com/DougGregor/swift-evolution/blob/nserror-bridging/proposals/0000-nserror-bridging.md#detailed-design>Detailed design
This section details both the design (including the various new protocols, mapping from Objective-C error code enumeration types into Swift types, etc.) and the efficient implementation of this design to interoperate with NSError. Throughout the detailed design, we already assume the name change from ErrorProtocol to Error.
This proposal introduces several new protocols that allow error types to expose more information about error types.
The LocalizedError protocol describes an error that provides localized messages for display to the end user, all of which provide default implementations. The conforming type can provide implementations for any subset of these requirements:
protocol LocalizedError : Error {
/// A localized message describing what error occurred.
var errorDescription: String? { get }
/// A localized message describing the reason for the failure.
var failureReason: String? { get }
/// A localized message describing how one might recover from the failure.
var recoverySuggestion: String? { get }
/// A localized message providing "help" text if the user requests help.
var helpAnchor: String? { get }
}
extension LocalizedError {
var errorDescription: String? { return nil }
var failureReason: String? { return nil }
var recoverySuggestion: String? { return nil }
var helpAnchor: String? { return nil }
}
The RecoverableError protocol describes an error that might be recoverable:
protocol RecoverableError : Error {
/// Provides a set of possible recovery options to present to the user.
var recoveryOptions: [String] { get }
/// Attempt to recover from this error when the user selected the
/// option at the given index. This routine must call resultHandler and
/// indicate whether recovery was successful (or not).
///
/// This entry point is used for recovery of errors handled at a
/// "document" granularity, that do not affect the entire
/// application.
func attemptRecovery(optionIndex recoveryOptionIndex: Int,
andThen resultHandler: (recovered: Bool) -> Void)
/// Attempt to recover from this error when the user selected the
/// option at the given index. Returns true to indicate
/// successful recovery, and false otherwise.
///
/// This entry point is used for recovery of errors handled at
/// the "application" granularity, where nothing else in the
/// application can proceed until the attmpted error recovery
/// completes.
func attemptRecovery(optionIndex recoveryOptionIndex: Int) -> Bool
}
extension RecoverableError {
/// By default, implements document-modal recovery via application-model
/// recovery.
func attemptRecovery(optionIndex recoveryOptionIndex: Int,
andThen resultHandler: (Bool) -> Void) {
resultHandler(recovered: attemptRecovery(optionIndex: recoveryOptionIndex))
}
}
Error types that conform to RecoverableError may be given an opportunity to recover from the error. The user can be presented with some number of (localized) recovery options, described by recoveryOptions, and the selected option will be passed to the appropriate attemptRecovery method.
The CustomNSError protocol describes an error that wants to provide custom NSError information. This can be used, e.g., to provide a specific domain/code or to populate NSError's userInfo dictionary with values for custom keys that can be accessed from Objective-C code but are not covered by the other protocols.
/// Describes an error type that fills in the userInfo directly.
protocol CustomNSError : Error {
var errorDomain: String { get }
var errorCode: Int { get }
var errorUserInfo: [String : AnyObject] { get }
}
Note that, unlike with NSError, the provided errorUserInfo requires String keys. This is in line with common practice for NSError and is important for the implementation (see below). All of these properties are defaulted, so one can provide any subset:
extension CustomNSError {
var errorDomain: String { ... }
var errorCode: Int { ... }
var errorUserInfo: [String : AnyObject] { ... }
}
<https://github.com/DougGregor/swift-evolution/blob/nserror-bridging/proposals/0000-nserror-bridging.md#mapping-error-types-to-nserror>Mapping error types to NSError
Every type that conforms to the Error protocol is implicitly bridged to NSError. This has been the case since Swift 2, where the compiler provides a domain (i.e., the mangled name of the type) and code (based on the discriminator of the enumeration type). This proposal also allows for the userInfo dictionary to be populated by the runtime, which will check for conformance to the various protocols (LocalizedError, RecoverableError, or CustomNSError) to retrieve information.
Conceptually, this could be implemented by eagerly creating a userInfo dictionary for a given instance of Error:
func createUserInfo(error: Error) -> [NSObject : AnyObject] {
var userInfo: [NSObject : AnyObject] = [:]
// Retrieve custom userInfo information.
if let customUserInfoError = error as? CustomNSError {
userInfo = customUserInfoError.userInfo
}
if let localizedError = error as? LocalizedError {
if let description = localizedError.errorDescription {
userInfo[NSLocalizedDescriptionKey] = description
}
if let reason = localizedError.failureReason {
userInfo[NSLocalizedFailureReasonErrorKey] = reason
}
if let suggestion = localizedError.recoverySuggestion {
userInfo[NSLocalizedRecoverySuggestionErrorKey] = suggestion
}
if let helpAnchor = localizedError.helpAnchor {
userInfo[NSHelpAnchorErrorKey] = helpAnchor
}
}
if let recoverableError = error as? RecoverableError {
userInfo[NSLocalizedRecoveryOptionsErrorKey] = recoverableError.recoveryOptions
userInfo[NSRecoveryAttempterErrorKey] = RecoveryAttempter()
}
}
The RecoveryAttempter class is an implementation detail. It will implement the informal protocol NSErrorRecoveryAttempting <Apple Developer Documentation; for the given error:
class RecoveryAttempter : NSObject {
@objc(attemptRecoveryFromError:optionIndex:delegate:didRecoverSelector:contextInfo:)
func attemptRecovery(fromError nsError: NSError,
optionIndex recoveryOptionIndex: Int,
delegate: AnyObject?,
didRecoverSelector: Selector,
contextInfo: UnsafeMutablePointer<Void>) {
let error = nsError as! RecoverableError
error.attemptRecovery(optionIndex: recoveryOptionIndex) { success in
// Exposition only: this part will actually have to be
// implemented in Objective-C to pass the BOOL and void* through.
delegate?.perform(didRecoverSelector, with: success, with: contextInfo)
}
}
@objc(attemptRecoveryFromError:optionIndex:)
func attemptRecovery(fromError nsError: NSError,
optionIndex recoveryOptionIndex: Int) -> Bool {
let error = nsError as! RecoverableError
return error.attemptRecovery(optionIndex: recoveryOptionIndex)
}
}
The actual the population of the userInfo dictionary should not be eager. NSError provides the notion of global "user info value providers" that it uses to lazily request the values for certain keys, via setUserInfoValueProvider(forDomain:provider:), which is declared as:
extension NSError {
@available(OSX 10.11, iOS 9.0, tvOS 9.0, watchOS 2.0, *)
class func setUserInfoValueProvider(forDomain errorDomain: String,
provider: ((NSError, String) -> AnyObject?)? = nil)
}
The runtime would need to register a user info value provider for each error type the first time it is bridged into NSError, supplying the domain and the following user info value provider function:
func userInfoValueProvider(nsError: NSError, key: String) -> AnyObject? {
let error = nsError as! Error
switch key {
case NSLocalizedDescriptionKey:
return (error as? LocalizedError)?.errorDescription
case NSLocalizedFailureReasonErrorKey:
return (error as? LocalizedError)?.failureReason
case NSLocalizedRecoverySuggestionErrorKey:
return (error as? LocalizedError)?.recoverySuggestion
case NSHelpAnchorErrorKey:
return (error as? LocalizedError)?.helpAnchor
case NSLocalizedRecoveryOptionsErrorKey:
return (error as? RecoverableError)?.recoveryOptions
case NSRecoveryAttempterErrorKey:
return error is RecoverableError ? RecoveryAttempter() : nil
default:
guard let customUserInfoError = error as? CustomNSError else { return nil }
return customUserInfoError.userInfo[key]
}
}
On platforms that predate the introduction of user info value providers, there are alternate implementation strategies, including introducing a custom NSDictionary subclass to use as the userInfo in the NSError that lazily populates the dictionary by, effectively, calling the userInfoValueProvider function above for each requested key. Or, one could eagerly populate userInfo on older platforms.
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub error types from Objective-C
In Objective-C, error domains are typically constructed using an enumeration describing the error codes and a constant describing the error domain, e.g,
extern NSString *const AVFoundationErrorDomain;
typedef NS_ENUM(NSInteger, AVError) {
AVErrorUnknown = -11800,
AVErrorOutOfMemory = -11801,
AVErrorSessionNotRunning = -11803,
AVErrorDeviceAlreadyUsedByAnotherSession = -11804,
// ...
}
This is currently imported as an enum that conforms to Error:
enum AVError : Int {
case unknown = -11800
case outOfMemory = -11801
case sessionNotRunning = -11803
case deviceAlreadyUsedByAnotherSession = -11804
static var _domain: String { return AVFoundationErrorDomain }
}
and Swift code introduces an extension that makes it an Error, along with some implementation magic to allow bridging from an NSError (losing userInfo in the process):
extension AVError : Error {
static var _domain: String { return AVFoundationErrorDomain }
}
Instead, error enums should be expressed with a new macro, NS_ERROR_ENUM, that ties together the code and domain in the Objective-C header:
extern NSString *const AVFoundationErrorDomain;
typedef NS_ERROR_ENUM(NSInteger, AVError, AVFoundationErrorDomain) {
AVErrorUnknown = -11800,
AVErrorOutOfMemory = -11801,
AVErrorSessionNotRunning = -11803,
AVErrorDeviceAlreadyUsedByAnotherSession = -11804,
// ...
}
This will import as a new struct AVError that contains an NSError, so there is no information loss. The actual enum will become a nested type Code, so that it is still accessible. The resulting struct will be as follows:
struct AVError {
/// Stored NSError. Note that error.domain == AVFoundationErrorDomain is an invariant.
private var error: NSError
/// Describes the error codes; directly imported from AVError
enum Code : Int, ErrorCodeProtocol {
typealias ErrorType = AVError
case unknown = -11800
case outOfMemory = -11801
case sessionNotRunning = -11803
case deviceAlreadyUsedByAnotherSession = -11804
func errorMatchesCode(_ error: AVError) -> Bool {
return error.code == self
}
}
/// Allow one to create an error (optionally) with a userInfo dictionary.
init(_ code: Code, userInfo: [NSObject: AnyObject] = [:]) {
error = NSError(code: code.rawValue, domain: _domain, userInfo: userInfo)
}
/// Retrieve the code.
var code: Code { return Code(rawValue: error.code)! }
/// Allow direct access to the userInfo dictionary.
var userInfo: [NSObject: AnyObject] { return error.userInfo }
/// Make it easy to refer to constants without context.
static let unknown: Code = .unknown
static let outOfMemory: Code = .outOfMemory
static let sessionNotRunning: Code = .sessionNotRunning
static let deviceAlreadyUsedByAnotherSession: Code = .deviceAlreadyUsedByAnotherSession
}
// Implementation detail: makes AVError conform to Error
extension AVError : Error {
static var _domain: String { return AVFoundationErrorDomain }
var _code: Int { return error.code }
}
This syntax allows one to throw specific errors fairly easily, with or without userInfo dictionaries:
throw AVError(.sessionNotRunning)
throw AVError(.sessionNotRunning, userInfo: [ ... ])
The ImportedErrorCode protocol is a helper so that we can define a general ~= operator, which is used by both switchcase matching and catch blocks:
protocol ErrorCodeProtocol {
typealias ErrorType : Error
func errorMatchesCode(_ error: ErrorType) -> Bool
}
func ~= <EC: ErrorCodeProtocol> (error: Error, code: EC) -> Bool {
guard let myError = error as? EC.ErrorType else { return false }
return code.errorMatchesCode(myError)
}
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub NSError types back into Swift
When an NSError object bridged to an Error instance, it may be immediately mapped back to a Swift error type (e.g., if the error was created as a HomeworkError instance in Swift and then passed through NSError unmodified) or it might be leave as an instance of NSError. The error might then be catch as a particular Swift error type, e.g.,
catch let error as AVError where error.code == .sessionNotRunning {
// able to access userInfo here!
}
In this case, the mapping from an NSError instance to AVError goes through an implementation-detail protocol_ObjectiveCBridgeableError:
protocol _ObjectiveCBridgeableError : Error {
/// Produce a value of the error type corresponding to the given NSError,
/// or return nil if it cannot be bridged.
init?(_bridgedNSError error: NSError)
}
The initializer is responsible for checking the domain and (optionally) the code of the incoming NSError to map it to an instance of the Swift error type. For example, AVError would adopt this protocol as follows:
// Implementation detail: makes AVError conform to _ObjectiveCBridgeableError
extension AVError : _ObjectiveCBridgeableError {
init?(_bridgedNSError error: NSError) {
// Check whether the error comes from the AVFoundation error domain
if error.domain != AVFoundationErrorDomain { return nil }
// Save the error
self.error = error
}
}
We do not propose that _ObjectiveCBridgeableError become a public protocol, because the core team has already deferred a similar proposal (SE-0058 <https://github.com/apple/swift-evolution/blob/master/proposals/0058-objectivecbridgeable.md>\) to make the related protocol _ObjectiveCBridgeable public.
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub Issues
NSError codes and domains are important for localization of error messages. This is barely supported today by genstrings, but becomes considerably harder when the domain and code are hidden (as they are in Swift). We would need to consider tooling to make it easier to localize error descriptions, recovery options, etc. in a sensible way. Although this is out of the scope of the Swift language per se, it's an important part of the developer story.
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub on existing code
This is a major source-breaking change for Objective-C APIs that operate on NSError values, because those parameter/return/property types will change from NSError to Error. There are ~400 such APIs in the macOS SDK, and closer to 500 in the iOS SDK, which is a sizable number. Fortunately, this is similar in scope to the Foundation value types proposal <https://github.com/apple/swift-evolution/blob/master/proposals/0069-swift-mutability-for-foundation.md>, and can use the same code migration mechanism. That said, the scale of this change means that it should either happen in Swift 3 or not at all.
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub directions
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub tooling for describing errors
When adopting one of the new protocols (e.g., LocalizedError) in an enum, one will inevitably end up with a number of switch statements that have to enumerate all of the cases, leading to a lot of boilerplate. Better tooling could improve the situation considerably: for example, one could use something like Cocoa's stringsdict files <https://developer.apple.com/library/prerelease/content/documentation/MacOSX/Conceptual/BPInternational/StringsdictFileFormat/StringsdictFileFormat.html> to provide localized strings identified by the enum name, case name, and property. That would eliminate the need for the switch-on-all-cases implementations of each property.
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub errors through userInfo
The CustomNSError protocol allows one to place arbitrary key/value pairs into NSError's userInfo dictionary. The implementation-detail _ObjectiveCBridgeableError protocol allows one to control how a raw NSError is mapped to a particular error type. One could effectively serialize the entire state of a particular error type into the userInfo dictionary viaCustomNSError, then restore it via _ObjectiveCBridgeableError, allowing one to form a complete NSError in Objective-C that can reconstitute itself as a particular Swift error type, which can be useful both for mixed-source projects and (possibly) as a weak form of serialization for NSErrors.
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub considered
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub the domain, code, and user-info dictionary directly
This proposal does not directly expose the domain, code, or user-info dictionary on ErrorProtocol, because these notions are superseded by Swift's strong typing of errors. The domain is effectively subsumed by the type of the error (e.g., a Swift-defined error type uses its mangled name as the domain); the code is some type-specific value (e.g., the discriminator of the enum); and the user-info dictionary is an untyped set of key-value pairs that are better expressed in Swift as data on the specific error type.
<swift-evolution/0000-nserror-bridging.md at nserror-bridging · DougGregor/swift-evolution · GitHub NSError to a new value type Error
One could introduce a new value type, Error, that stores a domain, code, and user-info dictionary but provides them with value semantics. Doing so would make it easier to create "generic" errors that carry some information. However, we feel that introducing new error types in Swift is already easier than establishing a new domain and a set of codes, because a new enum type provides this information naturally in Swift.