A question that has come up a few times in the discussion about lifetime dependency in this thread is, how will Swift's lifetime dependency feature stack up to Rust, both in the near term, and in the future? I took some time to explore this topic. This question is important to answer because Rust is perhaps the only other successful mainstream programming language with a comparable feature, and yet we're doing something different, so we should understand how the functionality in Swift relates to Rust, and justify why we're doing something different. It's also important to ensure we have a design that not only handles simple cases well, but which can scale to handle more complex lifetime relationships.
The initial lifetime dependency proposal for Swift offers a limited lifetime dependency mechanism with the benefit that it allows for dependencies to be stated directly between a dependent value and its dependency without the need for abstractions like lifetime variables. This model allows for what I'll call "first-order" dependencies to be modeled between values, such as the dependency between a memory reference and the owner of the memory, but it loses expressivity when talking about aggregates or collections of independently lifetime-constrained values. Looking to the future, the proposal offers a vision for non-Escapable types to carry multiple lifetime members, which can track lifetimes independently, and which should match or exceed Rust in expressivity. However, Rust's design still has some ergonomic benefits that our eventual full lifetime model could learn from.
Note that, although I've followed Rust's development since 2009 and I think I have a decent intellectual understanding of its model, I don't write Rust very much, so I might get details of its model wrong, and Rust may be capable of expressing things in a way that I'm not aware of. Don't be afraid to point out anything I didn't get right here.
Comparing lifetime-dependent types and generics
First, let's compare how types with and without lifetime dependencies are declared in the two languages, and how generic types compose their lifetime dependency from their generic parameters.
Swift
In Swift, types are assumed to be escapable, meaning values of the type never have a lifetime dependency, so they implicitly satisfy the Escapable constraint. This includes generic parameters; <T> is assumed to represent an escapable type unless indicated otherwise. A type declares itself to be (potentially) lifetime-constrained by suppressing the implicit Escapable conformance, whether the type is directly lifetime-dependent or is composed of lifetime dependent elements. In the latter case, a type can indicate conditional escapability by conditional conformance:
// Int is lifetime-independent because it implicitly conforms to Escapable
struct Inches {
var x: Int
}
// Ref is inherently lifetime-dependent
struct Ref<T>: ~Escapable {
borrow pointee: T
}
// Optional can be lifetime-dependent.
enum Optional<T: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
case none, some(T)
}
// However, it's lifetime-independent when its element type is.
// This is explicitly stated with a conditional conformance.
extension Optional: Escapable where T: Escapable {}
// Function generic over only escapable values
func onlyAcceptsEscapableValues<T>(_ x : T) -> Any {
x
}
// Function generic over potentially non-escapable values
func alsoAcceptsNonescapableValues<T: ~Escapable>(_ x : T) -> Any {
// error, `Any` requires `T: Escapable`
x
}
Rust
Rust by contrast handles lifetime dependence through type structure. A concrete type is lifetime-constrained if it structurally contains lifetime variables. Conversely, a type with no lifetime variables, or in which all lifetime variables are bound to the 'static lifetime, is lifetime-unconstrained. Generic parameters are presumed to potentially contain lifetime variables, so generic types and functions work with lifetime-dependent values by default, without needing explicit annotation or conditional conformance. A generic parameter can be constrained to only accept lifetime-independent types by stating a 'static constraint. [More generally, a generic parameter can also be constrained to only include lifetimes that match or outlive 'a by stating a T: 'a constraint.] This introduces a distinction between directly lifetime-dependent types (which introduce type variables) and types that are potentially lifetime-dependent through composition:
// Inches is lifetime-independent because it has no lifetime variables
struct Inches {
x: iptr
}
// Ref is inherently lifetime-dependent because it introduces a
// lifetime variable
struct Ref<'a, T> {
pointee: &'a T
}
// Option is lifetime-dependent only when its payload is.
// This is inherent in the fact that `T` may be bound to a type
// involving lifetime variables, making the substituted `Option<Foo<'a>>`
// type lifetime-dependent, but `Option` does not itself introduce
// independent lifetime variables.
enum Option<T> {
None, Some(T)
}
//
// No need for these to be explicit, since they're structurally true:
//
// impl<T: 'static> 'static for Option<T> {}
// impl<'a, T: 'a> 'a for Option<'a> {}
However, Rust code has to make 'static constraints explicit when code is generic over only lifetime-unconstrained values, such as when type-erasing values into dyn containers:
trait Trait {}
// Function generic over only escapable values
fn only_accepts_escapable_values<T: Trait + 'static>(x : T) -> Box<dyn Trait> {
x
}
// Function generic over potentially non-escapable values
fn only_accepts_escapable_values<T: Trait>(x : T) -> Box<dyn Trait> {
// error, `T` (which may have lifetime variables) may not live long enough
// for `dyn Trait` (which has no lifetime variables)
x
}
Rust's model makes composition of lifetime-dependent types natural and largely automatic, with the tradeoff that generic code has to explicitly specify lifetimes when working with lifetime-independent values or lifetime dependencies that don't directly follow generic substitutions.
Swift can't adopt Rust's model directly because, as with the introduction of Copyable, we have to accept that the already-established Swift language assumes that all values are fully lifetime-independent, so there needs to be some way in which to opt types and generic parameters into carrying lifetime dependencies. Manifesting it as a protocol follows the established pattern we set with Copyable, although requiring composing types to state the conditional Escapable conformance does feel like a weakness compared to the "just works" model in Rust.
Swift stage 1: First-order lifetime dependencies
To gradually introduce lifetime dependencies as a concept into Swift, we plan to begin with what I'll call "first order" lifetime dependencies. This is a limited level of expressivity that allows for functions to describe lifetime dependencies among their arguments and return value, but without allowing for individual control of lifetimes in aggregates, wrappers, or collections. The goal is to provide enough of a feature for the "safe buffer pointer" Span type to be usable for efficiently and safely working with memory regions. This subset of functionality can't express many things that Rust can, but let's compare with Rust to get a sense of what the boundaries are.
Types
First-order lifetime dependencies only allow for describing the lifetime dependency of a value as a whole. This means that declaring a type to be ~Escapable in Swift is roughly akin to declaring it with a single lifetime variable in Rust:
struct Foo: ~Escapable { ... }
struct Bar: ~Escapable { ... }
struct Foo<'a> { ... }
struct Bar<'a> { ... }
When the type contains nonescapable fields, the notional lifetime variables of those fields' types are tied to the containing type's type variable:
struct Foobar: ~Escapable {
var foo: Foo
var bar: Bar
}
struct Foobar<'a> {
foo: Foo<'a>,
bar: Bar<'a>
}
And if a type is generic over nonescapable type parameters, those type parameters are also constrained to the same type variable:
struct Pair<T: ~Escapable, U: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
var first: T
var second: U
}
struct Pair<'a, T: 'a, U: 'a> {
first: T,
second: U
}
[Rust won't actually let you write that particular declaration since it considers the 'a in this case to be redundant, since structurally Pair has to depend on whatever lifetime constraints T and U carry. Making the lifetime variable explicit here hopefully helps make the point, though, that the initial Swift model only considers lifetime dependencies at the whole value level.]
Function dependencies
The initial Swift model allows for functions to indicate that a ~Escapable return value is lifetime-dependent on one of the arguments to the call. A function can state that its return value has the same lifetime constraint as one of its ~Escapable parameters, producing what the proposal calls a copied dependency:
func carry(x: Foo) -> dependsOn(x) Bar
which corresponds to a Rust declaration binding the return type's lifetime parameter to the input's:
fn carry<'a>(x: &'_ Foo<'a>) -> Bar<'a>
In either language, the result of a call can then be used within the same lifetime constraint as the argument, even if that argument's own lifetime ends:
let parent = S()
let bar: Bar
do {
// make a `Foo` dependent on `parent`
let foo = getDependentFoo(parent: parent)
bar = carry(x: foo)
}
use(bar) // OK because the dependency is on `parent`, not on `foo`
let parent = S {};
let bar = {
// make a `Foo` dependent on `&parent`
let foo = get_dependent_foo(&parent);
carry(foo)
}
use(bar) // OK because the dependency is on `&parent`, not on `foo`
In Rust, most lifetime dependencies have their origin in the formation of &'a T and &'a mut T references. Swift does not have first-class borrowing or inout types (yet?), and the formation of a borrow or inout reference is implicit as part of calling a function with borrowing or inout parameters. In order to represent dependencies on this implicit reference, the proposal also specifies scoped dependencies on a borrow or inout, which can be of any type, Escapable or not:
struct S {} // a normal escapable type
func borrow(x: borrowing S) -> dependsOn(/*scoped*/ x) Foo
func mutate(x: inout S) -> dependsOn(/*scoped*/ x) Foo
let parent = S()
let borrowed = borrow(x: parent)
If Swift didn't have borrowing and inout parameters as a primitive feature, but instead had explicit reference types, then the above might instead be expressed as a "copied dependency" on an explicitly-formed Borrow:
struct Borrow<T>: ~Escapable {...}
struct Inout<T>: ~Escapable {...}
func borrow(x: Borrow<S>) -> dependsOn(/*copy*/ x) Foo
func mutate(x: Inout<S>) -> dependsOn(/*copy*/ x) Foo
let parent = S()
let borrowed = borrow(x: Borrow(parent))
Since forming references in Rust is already explicit, the best analogy in Rust to a Swift scoped dependency is binding the result's lifetime parameter to a reference argument's lifetime:
struct S {} // a normal escapable type
fn borrow(x: &'a S) -> Foo<'a>
fn mutate(x: &'a mut S) -> Foo<'a>
let parent = S {};
let borrowed = borrow(&parent);
Any other borrowed or nonescapable parameters not involved in a Swift declaration's return dependency have their lifetime variables effectively ignored, as if elided or specified as '_ in Rust.
func borrow(from x: borrowing S, withHelpFrom y: Bar) -> dependsOn(x) Foo
fn borrow<'a>(from: &'a S, with_help_from: &'_ Bar<'_>) -> Foo<'a>
What you can't express
The initial Swift model can handle most cases involving one level of lifetime dependency (hence my calling it "first-order") between pairs of values. This is sufficient for many use cases, particularly working with memory regions containing escapable values dependent on an owner value. However, in its most limited form, it cannot represent dependencies involving more than one dependent and dependency. In Rust, the same type variable can be bound in any number of positions in a declaration:
fn foo<'a>(x: &'a Foo<'a>, y: &'a S) -> Bar<'a>
Because of Rust's lifetime subtyping rules, this has the effect not of requiring the reference &'a Foo<'a>, the value Foo<'a> itself, and the reference &'a S to have an exactly matching lifetime, but rather for there to be some common lifetime that all of the inputs share, which will then become the lifetime constraint for the result Bar. However, it's not a huge stretch to imagine the dependsOn syntax allowing for multiple dependencies to be specified. The above could perhaps be expressed in Swift as:
func foo(x: Foo, y: S) -> dependsOn(scoped x, copy x, copy y) Bar
although the "scoped" and "copy" terminology breaks down a bit here, since the resulting lifetime is not necessarily literally copied from or scoped to any of the individual parameters in the list, but is rather a lifetime that is matched or outlived by all of the stated lifetimes.
A more fundamental restriction rears its head when we start to look at aggregates or collections of lifetime-dependent values. In these situations, the first-order restriction begins to lose information, leading to expressivity limitations compared to a more elaborate system like Rust's. For instance, even a Pair of non-escapable elements cannot independently track the lifetimes of the two elements, since the following Swift:
struct Pair<T: ~Escapable, U: ~Escapable> {
var first: T, second: U
}
var ne1 = NE()
var ne2 = NE()
let pair = Pair(first: ne1, second: ne2)
ne1 = pair.first
roughly corresponds to this in Rust:
struct Pair<'a, T: 'a, U: 'a> {
first: T, second: U
}
let mut ne1: NE<'a> = NE {};
let mut ne2: NE<'b> = NE {};
let pair: Pair<'b, NE<'b>, NE<'b>> = Pair { first: ne1, second: ne2 };
ne1 = pair.first // <- ERROR
Since the first-order restriction lets a Pair carry only one lifetime dependency, its lifetime ends up being the shorter of its two elements' lifetimes, meaning that the longer-lived element cannot be extracted preserving its original lifetime.
This first-order restriction also leads to severe limitations when working with collections and spans of elements that are themselves lifetime-dependent. Consider an Array and Span that support nonescaping element types:
struct Array<T: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
borrowing func span() -> dependsOn(scoped self) Span<T>
mutating func append(_: dependsOn(copy self) T)
}
struct Span<T: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
subscript() -> dependsOn(copy self) T
}
struct NE: ~Escapable {}
Code would reasonably want to access elements of the array through a span, and then feed those elements back into the original array. It's also reasonable to expect to take elements out of the array and use them with their original lifetime:
func test(a: NE, b: NE) -> NE {
var array = [a, b]
let element: NE
do {
let span = array.span()
element = span[0]
}
array.append(element)
let result = array.last
return result
}
However, the single lifetime dependency restriction means that every successive method call produces a value with a stricter lifetime dependency than its arguments, meaning elements extracted from the span take on the lifetime dependency of the span, and elements extracted from the array take on the lifetime of the array. Overlaying the Swift code above with some hybrid Rust-like lifetime variable syntax:
// `a` and `b` have a lifetime 'a from the caller
func test<'a>(a: NE<'a>, b: NE<'a>) -> NE<'a> {
// `array` has a lifetime 'b for the duration of the callee
var array: Array<'b, NE<'b>> = [a, b]
let element: NE<'b>
do {
// `span` has a lifetime 'c for the duration of borrowing `array`
// in the `do` scope
let span: Span<'c, NE<'c>> = array.span()
// `element` therefore gets a lifetime 'c, but it needs at least
// lifetime 'b to be assignable back into `array`
element = span[0] // <- ERROR
}
array.append(element)
// `result` gets a lifetime 'b copied from `array`, but it needs the
// caller's lifetime 'a to be returnable
let result: NE<'b> = array.last
return result // <- ERROR
}
This suggests that the first-order lifetime dependency feature, as a general rule, is insufficient for expressing collections of values that themselves have lifetime dependencies.
Swift stage ∞: Named lifetimes
Ideally, we wouldn't paint ourselves into a corner with our lifetime dependency language design, so we should consider what a more complete lifetime feature for Swift looks like, and how what we're planning to ship in year one looks in context. Although Rust's model is a proven model for expressive handling of lifetimes, and its design handles lifetimes in a naturally compositional way when used with generic types, there are also opportunities for improvement:
- Lifetime variables are always abstract and independent from scopes or declarations otherwise written in source code. This allows for flexibility and abstraction from type layouts without compromising safety, but introduces a layer of notational indirection that readers have to reason through. The
dependsOnsyntax for first-order lifetime dependencies directly relates the dependent value to the value it depends on, and it would be good to preserve that directness when possible even in more elaborate cases. - Swift places a high emphasis on library evolution. Rust's lifetime variables manifest as part of the generic signature of lifetime-dependent types, meaning that adding or removing them is a source-breaking change except in limited situations where the lifetime variables can always be elided. In principle, it should be possible to remove a lifetime variable, thereby eliminating a dependency from a type, or add a lifetime variable that defaults to
'staticor an existing lifetime variable, without fundamentally breaking the API of a type. - Rust doesn't allow for a type to specify interior dependencies among fields of a type; for instance, a lifetime-independent value combining a dependent value with the value it depends on.
To provide comparable expressivity to Rust while addressing these shortcomings, the proposal alludes to named lifetimes as a future extension. This will allow ~Escapable types to specify multiple independent lifetimes to track as members of the type. Oftentimes, these lifetimes correspond directly to properties of the type. For instance, the Pair example above might be declared as:
struct Pair<T: ~Escapable, U: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
lifetime var first: T
lifetime var second: U
}
indicating that first and second are stored properties that have independent lifetime dependencies within Pair. The initializer and accessors for a type like this might specify how these lifetimes flow through the type as follows:
extension Pair {
// A new Pair carries its `first` and `second` dependencies from their
// corresponding element values
init(first: T, second: U)
-> dependsOn(.first: first, .second: second) Self
// Accessing each field produces a value with the corresponding lifetime
// dependency for that field.
var first: dependsOn(self.first) T
var second: dependsOn(self.second) U
}
This allows the usage example above to work:
var ne1 = NE()
var ne2 = NE()
let pair = Pair(first: ne1, second: ne2)
ne1 = pair.first
since it now corresponds to the following Rust:
struct Pair<'first, 'second, T: 'first, U: 'second> {
first: T, second: U
}
let mut ne1: NE<'a> = NE {};
let mut ne2: NE<'b> = NE {};
let pair: Pair<'a, 'b, NE<'a>, NE<'b>> = Pair { first: ne1, second: ne2 };
ne1 = pair.first // OK now
Named lifetimes can be independent of the type's physical layout. Array and Span might be declared as follows:
struct Array<T: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
// The lifetime of the elements in the array
lifetime elements: T
// A span's memory depends on this array, but its elements carry their
// original dependency
borrowing func span()
-> dependsOn(.memory: scoped self, .elements: self.elements) Span<T>
mutating func append(_ element: dependsOn(self.elements) T)
}
struct Span<T: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
// The lifetime of the memory referenced by the span
lifetime memory
// The lifetime of the elements
lifetime elements: T
// Accessing elements preserves their original lifetime
subscript(index: Int) -> dependsOn(self.elements) T
}
If we return to the example above:
func test(a: NE, b: NE) -> NE {
var array = [a, b]
let element: NE
do {
let span = array.span()
element = span[0]
}
array.append(element)
let result = array.last
return result
}
it can now work as:
// `a` and `b` have a lifetime 'a from the caller
func test<'elements>(a: NE<'elements>, b: NE<'elements>) -> NE<'elements> {
// `array` captures the elements' lifetime
var array: Array<'elements, NE<'elements>> = [a, b]
let element: NE<'elements>
do {
// `span` has a lifetime 'array for the duration of borrowing `array`,
// but also preserves the element lifetime
let span: Span<'array, 'elements, NE<'elements>> = array.span()
// `element` carries the 'elements lifetime from the original
// values
element = span[0] // OK
}
array.append(element) // OK
// `result` also gets the 'elements lifetime back from the original values
let result: NE<'elements> = array.last
return result // OK
}
Lifetime members can be typed, allowing for independent lifetimes to compose. The type of the elements lifetime in the Array and Span declarations above has type T corresponding to their generic parameter. When used with an element type that itself has multiple independent lifetime members, such as Pair, the element type's lifetime members are preserved and carried as subelements of the collection's lifetime:
var a = NE()
do {
var b = NE()
// Pair preserves `a` and `b`'s lifetimes independently...
let pair = Pair(first: a, second: b)
// ...meaning we can extract the value of `first` and use it with its
// original lifetime to reassign back to `a`
a = pair.first
// We can create an Array carrying this compound lifetime dependency for
// its `elements`...
let array = [pair]
// ...and when we extract an array's element, then the lifetime of
// `elements.first` still allows us to use the first part of `Pair` with
// its original lifetime
a = array[0].first
}
consume(a)
So far this looks like a more verbose way to express compound lifetime dependencies that Rust's lifetime variables handle more or less automatically through generic substitution, though perhaps it's at least arguably more "direct" and less abstract in return. When it comes time to design and implement this model for Swift, we will probably want to spend time on ergonomics so that these common cases do not require a lot of boilerplate.
However, the named lifetime model also allows for the lifetime schema to be independent of generic substitution, unlike Rust. For instance, a type may want to be parameterized on potentially ~Escapable types while still itself remaining Escapable. For instance, a factory interface might work with lifetime-constrained types:
struct Factory<T: ~Escapable> /* : Escapable */ {
var parameters: [String: Any]
func create(in scope: borrowing T) -> dependsOn(scope) T
}
The Factory type itself has no reason to be lifetime constrained, and it may be useful to use the same factory to produce nonescaping values with different dependencies. In Rust, a type like Factory<Foo<'a>> would be structurally lifetime-constrained to 'a, and would only be able to construct Foo<'a> values with the same lifetime dependency. (Maybe it's possible in recent Rust to avoid this using higher-rank bounds and/or higher-kinded associated types, but I wasn't able to figure out how to do so.)
It's also useful to be able to package an owning value with one or more values that are lifetime-dependent on it. The Swift standard library does this for its COW collection types using Unsafe*Pointer, but it should be possible to express this safely using Span:
struct ArraySubset<T> {
var owner: Array<T>
var subrange: dependsOn(owner) Span<T>
}
Rust also can't express this sort of intra-value dependency directly (possibly until recently using the aforementioned features) since lifetime variables can only be declared as part of the generic signature and can't be directly bound to other declarations.
It's also possible that a type may be lifetime-dependent in ways that don't directly correspond to its generic parameterization:
protocol SomeProto {
associatedtype Dependent: ~Escapable
}
struct Foo<T: SomeProto>: ~Escapable {
// The dependency is parameterized on an associated type of `T` rather
// than on T itself.
lifetime parent: T.Dependent
}
This model should also allow for more flexibility in library evolution. A type could grow additional fields with potentially newly- independent lifetime dependencies, as long as those dependencies default to either immortal or an existing lifetime member of the type:
// This used to be a pair, but library evolution forced us to add a third
// field
struct Pair<T: ~Escapable, U: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
// in version 1.0
lifetime var first: T
lifetime var second: U
// added in version 2.0
// the `third` lifetime defaults to `immortal` in existing code...
lifetime third = immortal
// ...since the `third` field defaults to nil. but new code which sets
// `third` to non-nil can carry a different constraint
var third: dependsOn(self.third) (any ~Escapable)? = nil
}
This will be important for staging in this more expressive lifetime model on top of the first-order model we plan to deliver initially, since any ~Escapable types that get published under the first-order model will effectively have only one lifetime member, and many of those types will want to be able to independently track additional lifetimes after we broaden the model.
Translating Rust to Swift named lifetimes
To test the theory that named lifetimes in Swift should be able to express anything that Rust can, and compare the ergonomics of the two languages' models, let's try translating some Rust constructs to this future version of Swift. Lifetime variables in a Rust type declaration:
struct Foo<'a, 'b> {...}
would map to individual lifetime members of the corresponding Swift type. The Swift type also has to become ~Escapable:
struct Foo: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
lifetime b
...
}
Non-'static generic parameters of a Rust type declaration:
struct Bar<'a, 'b, T: 'static, U, V> {...}
struct Baz<T: 'static, U, V> {...}
get corresponding typed lifetime members in the analogous Swift declaration. The Swift declaration becomes conditionally Escapable based on those generic parameters:
struct Bar<T, U: ~Escapable, V: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
lifetime b
lifetime u: U
lifetime v: V
}
// Bar is always ~Escapable because it has independent lifetimes
struct Baz<T, U: ~Escapable, V: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
lifetime u: U
lifetime v: V
}
// Baz has no lifetime variables independent of U and V, so can be
// conditionally Escapable
extension Baz: Escapable where U: Escapable, V: Escapable {}
Rust also allows for generic constraints involving lifetime and type variables. 'a: 'b indicates that the lifetime 'a must match or outlive 'b, and T: 'a indicates that any lifetime variables within T must all match or outlive 'a:
struct Zim<'a, 'b, T: 'a, U: 'b> where 'a: 'b { ... }
These correspond to dependencies among the lifetime members of the analogous Swift declaration, with the wrinkle that dependsOn communicates the opposite relation to : in Rust:
struct Zim<T: ~Escapable, U: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
lifetime a dependsOn(t)
lifetime b dependsOn(a, u)
lifetime t: T
lifetime u: T
}
That covers the core of what can be expressed in the generic signature of a type declaration. Inside the declaration, each field in a Rust struct can have a type parameterized by any of the lifetime parameters in the declaration:
struct First<'a> {...}
struct Second<'a> {...}
struct Third<'a> {...}
struct TwoOfThem<'a, 'b> {
first: First<'a>,
second: Second<'b>
}
struct ThreeOfTheSame<'a> {
first: First<'a>,
second: Second<'a>,
third: Third<'a>
}
struct Nested<'a, T> {...}
struct Compound<'a, 'b, 'c> {
foo: Nested<'a, First<'b>>,
bar: Nested<'b, Second<'c>>
}
The analogous Swift declarations might specify the lifetime bindings as dependencies:
struct First: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
}
struct Second: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
}
struct Third: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
}
struct TwoOfThem: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
lifetime b
var first: dependsOn(.a: self.a) First
var second: dependsOn(.a: self.b) Second
}
struct ThreeOfTheSame: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
var first: dependsOn(.a: self.a) First
var second: dependsOn(.a: self.a) First
var third: dependsOn(.a: self.a) First
}
struct Nested<T: ~Escapable>: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
lifetime t: T
}
struct Compound: ~Escapable {
lifetime a
lifetime b
lifetime c
var foo: dependsOn(.a: self.a, .t.a: self.b) Nested<First>
var foo: dependsOn(.a: self.b, .t.a: self.c) Nested<Second>
}
Conclusions
The initial lifetime dependency proposal provides enough functionality to support reference-like types whose referents are not themselves lifetime-constrained, but has severe limitations for expressing aggregates or collections of elements that themselves have lifetime constraints. The future direction of named lifetimes appears to provide Swift with a path to comparable expressivity to Rust lifetime variables, perhaps even exceeding Rust's expressivity in situations where lifetime dependencies need to evolve over a framework's lifetime or form relations that don't correspond to generic substitutions. However, Rust's model handles composition patterns implicitly with comparably less boilerplate than the current Swift design proposes, and its undeniable success suggests that even if carrying dependencies through generic substitution doesn't cover 100% of all possible use cases, it does cover enough of them to satisfy most Rust users. Even if we want to allow flexibility beyond what Rust allows, the ergonomics of Swift's lifetime feature could potentially benefit from default behavior that follows generic substitutions.
Also, although the dependsOn syntax offered by the proposal reads reasonably well for first-order dependencies, and it can be stretched to handle multiple named lifetimes, there are reasonable concerns about its readability as the length of the annotation expands. It may be worth exploring a declaration-level attribute as an initial syntax, and reconsider introducing shorthand for common cases as they arise after the feature is more widely adopted into the Swift ecosystem.